C2 English Glossary
A curated collection of advanced grammatical structures, collocations, and discourse markers essential for achieving Grade A at Cambridge C2 Proficiency.
Advanced Grammar
Inversion
A grammatical structure where the normal subject-verb order is reversed, often for emphasis or in formal writing.
Seldom has a decision been so controversial. / Not only did she arrive late, but she also forgot the documents.
Cleft Sentence
A sentence that is split into two parts to emphasize a particular piece of information.
It was the manager who made the final decision. / What really surprised me was her attitude.
Participle Clause
A clause that uses a present or past participle to add information in a more concise way.
Having considered all the options, we decided to proceed. / Exhausted from the journey, she went straight to bed.
Negative Inversion
Inversion used after negative or restrictive adverbs for dramatic or formal effect.
Under no circumstances should you reveal the source. / Hardly had we arrived when the meeting began.
Mixed Conditional
A conditional structure that combines different time references (usually past condition with present result, or present condition with past result).
If I had studied harder at school, I would be working in a better job now. / If she were more organized, she would have finished the report on time.
Modal Perfect
Modal verbs combined with 'have' + past participle to express speculation, criticism, or deduction about the past.
She must have forgotten about the meeting. / You shouldn't have told him the truth. / They might have already left.
Fronting
Moving an element (adverbial, object, complement) to the front of the sentence for emphasis or stylistic effect.
Rarely have I seen such dedication. / What I really appreciated was her honesty.
Ellipsis
Omitting words that are understood from context to make language more concise and natural.
I wanted to go but I couldn't (go). / She can play the piano better than I can (play the piano).
Hedging & Sophisticated Language
Hedging Language
Words and phrases used to express caution, doubt, or to avoid making absolute statements.
It could be argued that... / There is a tendency for... / It is somewhat unlikely that...
Nominalisation
The process of turning verbs or adjectives into nouns to create a more formal and academic tone.
The implementation of the policy (instead of 'They implemented the policy').
Hedging with Modals
Using modal verbs to soften claims and show nuance or possibility.
This approach might prove beneficial in the long term. / One could reasonably question whether...
Speculation Language
Phrases used to express possibility, probability or deduction without sounding too certain.
It is conceivable that... / There is every likelihood that... / One cannot rule out the possibility that...
Emphatic Structures
Grammatical patterns used to add emphasis, often through inversion, clefts, or intensifiers.
What really matters is... / It is precisely this issue that we need to address. / Never before has the situation been so critical.
Collocations & Vocabulary
Collocation
A natural combination of words that frequently occur together and sound correct to native speakers.
Make a decision (not 'do a decision'), heavy rain, deeply concerned, bitterly disappointed.
Idiomatic Expression
A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood from the literal meanings of the words.
It goes without saying that... / The proposal fell on deaf ears.
Dependent Preposition
A preposition that is fixed after certain verbs, adjectives, or nouns.
Dependent on, rely on, interested in, aware of, capable of.
Register
The level of formality in language (formal, neutral, informal) appropriate to the context, audience and purpose.
In a formal report one would write 'It is recommended that...' rather than 'I think we should...'.
Precision Vocabulary
Using the most accurate and sophisticated word rather than a general one.
Scrutinise (instead of 'look at carefully'), alleviate (instead of 'make better'), exacerbate (instead of 'make worse').
Discourse & Cohesion
Discourse Marker
Words or phrases that help organize ideas and show the relationship between sentences or paragraphs.
That said..., By the same token..., It is worth noting that..., On balance...
Cohesive Device
Words or phrases that link ideas together to create logical flow in writing or speech.
Furthermore, Consequently, In contrast, Nevertheless, What is more...
Signposting Language
Phrases used to guide the reader through the structure of an argument or text.
Turning now to..., Having considered the advantages..., It remains to be seen whether...
Substitution
Replacing a word or phrase with another word (one, ones, do so, so, neither, etc.) to avoid repetition.
I don't like this plan, but I can't think of a better one. / She asked him to leave and he did so immediately.
Passive Reporting
Using passive structures with reporting verbs to present information objectively and formally.
It is claimed that... / It has been argued that... / The results were said to be inconclusive.
Contrastive Language
Advanced expressions used to highlight differences or present opposing viewpoints elegantly.
By contrast..., Conversely..., This stands in stark contrast to..., While it is true that..., it is equally true that...
Academic & Formal Language
Impersonal Passive
A passive construction used to report opinions or findings in a formal, objective way.
It is widely believed that... / It has been suggested that... / It is often assumed that...
Complex Prepositions
Multi-word prepositions that add precision and formality.
In terms of, with regard to, in light of, by means of, on the grounds that.