Perfect non-finite forms

Use perfect infinitives, gerunds and participles to locate non-finite events before the time of the main clause.

When do we use it?

Choose active or passive perfect forms after reporting, evaluative and subordinate structures.

Form

Use to have done, having done, to have been done or having been done according to syntax and voice.

• She seems to have left.
• He denied having leaked it.
• Having been selected, they began training.

Key contrast

At C2, grammar is a resource for controlling perspective, density, rhythm and register, not merely avoiding error.

Common mistakes

• She seems having left. → She seems to have left.
• He denied to have leaked it. → He denied having leaked it.

Remember

Use perfect infinitives, gerunds and participles to locate non-finite events before the time of the main clause.

Quick check

• Identify the information focus and logical relationship.
• Check auxiliary order, reference and complement pattern.
• Choose the option that is idiomatic in the intended register.